Herodotus outlines the fundamental arguments at the
very core of governance in a discussion on the merits and shortcomings of
monarchy, oligarchy and democracy. In The
Histories (3.80-83) the eternal debate is
given voice from among the seven conspirators for the throne of the Persian
Empire in 522BCE.
Otanes argued for popular government. He said that
monarchy fosters the vices of envy and pride; it allows a ruler to do as he
pleases with little responsibility. Even the best men would be corrupted by
their own power, and would no longer perceive things as they used to. Worst of
all a monarch may abuse his citizens and break up the structures of law. In
contrast, the rule of the people avoids the problems of monarchs, it brings equality
under the law and enables open debate.
Megabyzus agreed with Otanes’s arguments against
monarchy, but warned that in transferring power to the people, that power would
be in the hands of the fickle, the irresponsible and the ignorant. Instead,
power should be given to the best men who would naturally produce the best
policy.
Darius agreed with Megabyzus’s criticisms of
democracy, but said that, in having a group of men competing for distinction
from within an oligarchy, rivalries would develop that would lead to violence
and civil war. Even in a democracy corrupt associations will develop. The
cliques of power in an oligarchy or democracy would only be broken when a
people’s champion comes forward and this person will be entrusted with absolute
power. And so it is, argued Darius, that the people’s freedom and best form of
government is ultimately derived from monarchy.
Darius won the debate, and it was agreed that the new
king would be whoever’s horse among the conspirators neighed first at dawn. Otanes
withdrew from the contest. Darius used the scent of a mare to encourage his
stallion to neigh; and so it was that the use of guile won power for Darius. A
reported flash of lighting from a clear sky was acknowledged as a divine sign
of approval. Nevertheless, the issues of effective governance remain.
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